Emotions: A Complex Spectrum Of Continuity And Nuance

The nature of emotions is a highly contested issue in emotion research and affective science. The two fundamental viewpoints are that emotions are either discrete or dimensional. Discrete emotion theory posits that there is a small number of core emotions that are fundamentally different constructs and are distinguishable by an individual's facial expression and biological processes. Theorists have conducted studies to determine which emotions are basic, with Silvan Tomkins concluding that there are nine basic affects, and Carroll Izard delineating 12 discrete emotions.

On the other hand, dimensional models of emotion attempt to conceptualize human emotions by defining where they lie in two or three dimensions, such as valence and arousal. Dimensional models suggest that a common and interconnected neurophysiological system is responsible for all affective states, contrasting theories of basic emotion, which propose that different emotions arise from separate neural systems.

While the debate on the nature of emotions continues, both discrete and dimensional models have been used in emotion research.

The 12 emotions according to the discrete emotion theory

The debate over whether emotions are discrete or dimensional has been a central topic in the field of psychology. Discrete emotion theory posits that emotions are a small set of distinct, biologically determined responses that are fundamentally the same for all individuals, regardless of ethnicity or cultural differences.

Carroll Izard, a psychologist at the University of Delaware, identified 12 discrete emotions:

• Interest
• Joy
• Surprise
• Sadness
• Anger
• Disgust
• Contempt
• Self-Hostility
• Fear
• Shame
• Shyness
• Guilt

These emotions were measured using the Differential Emotions Scale (DES-IV).

The 12 emotions of the discrete emotion theory are thought to be biologically determined emotional responses, with unique physiological, behavioural, and cognitive patterns. For example, the emotion of fear is associated with the amygdala, which senses fear and orchestrates physical actions and emotions.

The theory suggests that these emotions are universal and innate, as evidenced by studies showing that people from diverse cultural backgrounds and age groups, including deaf and blind individuals, can recognise and express these emotions through facial expressions.

However, it's important to note that the discrete emotion theory has faced criticism

Robert Plutchik's theory of eight basic emotions

The nature of emotions has been a subject of debate among experts. While some believe that emotions are discrete and fundamentally different constructs, others argue that they can be characterised on a dimensional basis in groupings.

Robert Plutchik, an American psychologist, proposed a psychoevolutionary classification approach for general emotional responses. He identified eight primary emotions: anger, fear, sadness, disgust, surprise, anticipation, trust, and joy. Plutchik's theory suggests that these emotions are primary because they serve as triggers for behaviours with high survival value. For example, fear inspires the fight-or-flight response, which is crucial for an organism's survival.

Plutchik's theory is organised in the form of a wheel, with eight sectors representing the primary emotions. Each primary emotion has a polar opposite based on the physiological reaction it creates. The pairs of emotions are as follows:

• Joy vs Sadness
• Anger vs Fear
• Trust vs Disgust
• Surprise vs Anticipation

Plutchik's wheel also illustrates how emotions can be combined to form different emotional states. For example, anticipation and joy combine to form optimism, while joy and trust combine to form love. These combinations demonstrate how emotions can be complex and how recognising the presence of multiple emotions can be a valuable skill.

The wheel also represents the intensity of emotions, with the vertical dimension indicating that emotions intensify as they move from the outside to the centre. The colours on the wheel also represent different intensities, with darker shades denoting more intense emotions. For instance, anger at its lowest level of intensity may be annoyance, while at its highest level, it becomes rage.

Plutchik's theory provides a framework for understanding emotions and their purpose. It highlights the evolutionary significance of emotions and how they can be mixed and matched to create a wide range of emotional responses.

Aristotle's theory of nine emotions

Aristotle's theory of emotions is a complex phenomenon involving mainly cognitive, desiderative, and affective aspects. These aspects are irreducible to each other, and his conception of emotions does not allow any reductionist project.

Aristotle's preferred term for emotions was "pathos", which he saw as passive states within a metaphysical landscape contrasting active and passive, form and matter, and actuality and potentiality. The "pathē" are responses to the outside world, similar to perceptions, and are located within the embodied animal. They are associated with matter as they represent capacities or potentialities that need to be actualized by external causes.

Aristotle's theory includes several complementary parts, and emotions are considered among the subclass of desires causing actions, along with beliefs or thoughts. The philosopher identifies 11 emotions in the Nichomachean Ethics: appetite, anger, fear, confidence, envy, joy, love, hatred, longing, emulation, and pity. However, in the Rhetoric, Aristotle identifies 14 emotions: anger, calm, friendship, enmity, fear, confidence, shame, shamelessness, kindness, unkindness, pity, indignation, envy, and emulation.

Aristotle's theory of emotions can be understood from several aspects:

The Bodily Aspect of Emotions:

Aristotle explains emotions in terms of both physical and mental states. He describes anger as having two different kinds of explanations: the dialectician defines it as "the appetite for returning pain for pain," while the physicist defines it as "a boiling of the blood or warm substance surrounding the heart." Aristotle emphasizes that emotions involve some kind of bodily sensations, such as movements around the heart, changes in temperature, and complexion.

The Desiderative Aspect: Pleasure and Pain in Emotions:

Aristotle's discussion of pleasure sheds light on his account of emotion. He identifies not only bodily pleasures but also mental or intellectual pleasures, such as the pleasures of reflecting on philosophical problems, playing chess, learning, and sensory experiences. He defines anger as "a desire accompanied by pain" and associates it with the expectation of revenge.

The Cognitive Aspect of Emotions:

Aristotle's theory includes cognition as an essential element. He identifies four important consequences of including cognitions within emotions:

• Beliefs are necessary ingredients of emotions.
• Emotions are intentional states.
• Beliefs distinguish the logical boundaries among particular emotions and the subjective experience of each emotion.
• Judgments are affected or changed by emotions.
• Action and Emotions:

Aristotle's theory of action is often interpreted as:

Desire + Belief → Action

He considers emotions among the subclass of desires causing actions and believes that emotions can be both rational and irrational. He suggests that beliefs and rationality are connected to emotions in two ways:

• Narrow Sense: Certain beliefs and desires are intrinsic to an individual emotion.
• Wider Deliberation: The relevant belief is extrinsic to the emotion but requires wider deliberation.

In summary, Aristotle's theory of nine emotions, as outlined in the Nichomachean Ethics, recognizes the complex interplay of cognitive, desiderative, and affective aspects of human experience. His theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the role of emotions in our lives.

Charles Darwin's theory of 34 emotions

In his 1872 work, *The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals*, Charles Darwin theorised that there are around 34 emotions. This work was based on observations of people in many parts of the world, including those born blind, and aimed to support his materialist theory of unguided evolution. Darwin's work was a response to Sir Charles Bell's 1844 claim that human facial muscles were created to give them the unique ability to express emotions.

Darwin's theory proposed that emotions, like other traits found in animals, evolved and were adapted over time. He suggested that emotional states are adaptive, and therefore only those able to express certain emotions passed on their characteristics. He also proposed that there are three principles that govern the expression of emotions:

• The principle of serviceable habits: Darwin defined this as certain habits or actions that are performed in certain states of mind, which get associated when that state of mind is induced, even when it's not needed.
• The principle of antithesis: Darwin proposed that some actions or habits are carried out merely because they are opposite in nature to a serviceable habit, but are not serviceable themselves.
• Expressive habits, or nervous discharge: This principle proposes that some habits are performed because of a build-up in the nervous system, which causes a discharge of excitement.

Darwin's work on the universality of emotions has been supported by Paul Ekman's research involving facial expressions. Ekman's work provided data to back up Darwin's ideas, even across cultures. He showed photographs exhibiting expressions of basic emotion to people and asked them to identify what was being expressed. In one study, he presented people in a preliterate culture with a story involving a certain emotion, along with photographs of specific facial expressions. The photographs had previously been used in studies with Western subjects, and the preliterate subjects' choices matched those of the Western subjects most of the time.

Charles Darwin's 34 Emotions

Darwin's work on emotions was groundbreaking, and while he didn't explicitly list out 34 emotions, he did describe a wide range of emotions and feelings in his work. Here are some of the key emotions that Darwin is credited with identifying or studying:

• Anger: Darwin described variations in related emotions, including rage, anger, indignation, defiance, and hatred. He considered these as distinct but related experiences, varying in intensity and social context.
• Fear: Darwin's work on the expression of fear is particularly notable. He suggested that the widened eyes in the facial expression of fear increase the visual field and the speed of moving the eyes, helping to find and follow threats.
• Disgust: Darwin may have been one of the first to study this emotion in depth. He suggested that the wrinkled nose and mouth of the facial expression of disgust limit the intake of foul-smelling and potentially dangerous particles.
• Sadness: Darwin included this as one of the basic emotions that are universally recognised and expressed similarly across cultures.
• Joy or happiness: Darwin considered joy or happiness as a basic positive emotion that is essential for survival and evolution.
• Interest: Darwin and other theorists have proposed that interest is a core emotion that motivates exploration and learning.
• Shame and guilt: These are considered social or self-conscious emotions that often involve higher-order cognition and cultural influences.
• Surprise: Darwin and other researchers have studied the expression of surprise, which is often associated with widened eyes and raised eyebrows.
• Contempt: This emotion is sometimes included in the basic set of emotions that are universally recognised.
• Love: Darwin considered love as an emotion, though later researchers have debated this classification.
• Indignation: The feeling of anger or outrage when something is perceived as unfair.
• Defiance: A related emotion to anger, expressing a refusal to yield or be defeated.
• Hatred: Darwin considered this as a transformation of anger into a more enduring and destructive psychological state.
• Anxiety: An emotion characterised by worry, nervousness, or fear, often about upcoming events or something with an uncertain outcome.
• Embarrassment: A feeling of self-consciousness or discomfort, often associated with a violation of social norms or making a mistake.
• Pride: A positive emotion associated with a sense of accomplishment or achievement, often involving higher-order cognition.
• Envy: The uncomfortable feeling of wanting something that someone else has, often involving a sense of resentment or jealousy.
• Gratitude: A positive emotion of appreciation and thankfulness for something received or experienced.
• Hope: An emotion characterised by a desire for something to happen, often involving a sense of expectation or anticipation.
• Relief: The feeling of ease or relaxation that comes with the removal of stress, danger, or pain.
• Disappointment: The opposite of relief, a feeling of sadness or letdown when expectations or hopes are not met.
• Curiosity: A desire to learn or know something, often involving exploration and information-seeking behaviours.
• Confusion: A state of uncertainty or lack of understanding, sometimes associated with conflicting information or unclear situations.
• Excitement: A heightened state of anticipation or eagerness, often involving increased energy and enthusiasm.
• Frustration: The feeling of being thwarted or hindered in achieving a goal or satisfying a desire, often involving anger or annoyance.
• Calmness: A state of emotional stability and lack of strong feelings, often associated with relaxation and peace.
• Contentment: A feeling of satisfaction and ease, often associated with positive life circumstances or the fulfilment of desires.
• Boredom: The opposite of excitement, a feeling of dullness or lack of interest in one's current situation or activities.
• Resentment: A feeling of anger or bitterness stemming from perceived unfair treatment or injustice.
• Trust: A confident reliance on someone or something, often involving a sense of security or assurance.
• Optimism: A positive outlook characterised by the expectation that good things will happen or that things will turn out well.
• Despair: The opposite of hope, a sense of hopelessness or loss of hope, often associated with negative life circumstances.
• Admiration: A feeling of respect and esteem for someone or something, often involving a recognition of positive qualities.
• Remorse: A feeling of regret or sorrow for one's actions, often involving a desire to make amends or seek forgiveness.

While this list may not perfectly capture all 34 emotions that Darwin alluded to, it provides a comprehensive overview of the emotional landscape that he helped to illuminate and continues to shape our understanding of human emotions today.

University of California, Berkeley's theory of 27 emotions

In a study by the University of California, Berkeley, 27 distinct categories of emotion were identified. The study, led by doctoral student Alan Cowen and UC Berkeley psychology professor Dacher Keltner, involved over 800 participants and 2,000 video clips. The participants were asked to freely report their emotional responses to 30 video clips, rank each video according to how strongly it made them feel a particular emotion, and rate their emotional responses on a scale of 1 to 9.

The 27 emotions identified in the study were:

• Admiration
• Adoration
• Aesthetic appreciation
• Amusement
• Anger
• Anxiety
• Awe
• Awkwardness
• Boredom
• Calmness
• Confusion
• Craving
• Disgust
• Empathic pain
• Entrancement
• Excitement
• Fear
• Horror
• Interest
• Joy
• Nostalgia
• Relief
• Romance
• Sadness
• Satisfaction
• Sexual desire
• Surprise

The study found that these emotions were interconnected and existed on a spectrum, with smooth gradients between emotions such as awe and peacefulness, horror and sadness, and amusement and adoration. For example, anxiety, fear, horror, and disgust lie close together, as do sexual desire and romance. The findings challenged the long-held assumption that most human emotions fall within the universal categories of happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust.

The study also found that participants' emotional responses to the video clips were generally similar, with more than half of the viewers reporting the same category of emotion for each video. This provided a wealth of data that allowed the researchers to identify the 27 distinct categories of emotion.

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