Emotion Regulation: Mastering The Mind's Cognitive Skill

Emotion regulation is the ability to respond to ongoing demands of experience with a range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible. It involves initiating, inhibiting or modulating one's state or behaviour in a given situation. Emotion regulation can be both a conscious and non-conscious process. It can be defined as extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions.

Emotion regulation is a highly significant function in human life. People are continually exposed to a wide variety of potentially arousing stimuli. Inappropriate, extreme or unchecked emotional reactions to such stimuli could impede functional fit within society; therefore, people must engage in some form of emotion regulation almost all of the time.

Emotion regulation is a complex process that involves the subjective experience (feelings), cognitive responses (thoughts), emotion-related physiological responses (heart rate or hormonal activity), and emotion-related behaviour (bodily actions or expressions).

Emotion regulation is a cognitive skill as it involves cognitive responses and processes.

Emotion regulation and the brain

Emotion regulation is the process of influencing the emotions we experience, when we experience them, and how we express them. It can be conscious or non-conscious, and automatic or controlled. It is a highly significant function in human life, as we are continually exposed to a wide variety of potentially arousing stimuli.

The Brain and Emotion Regulation

The limbic system of the human brain controls emotions. While researchers don't know all the structures within it, key parts include the amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex, and hypothalamus. The brain also plays a crucial role in how we control and process our emotions.

Emotion regulation involves three components:

• Initiating actions triggered by emotions.
• Inhibiting actions triggered by emotions.
• Modulating responses triggered by emotions.

The third component is the most effective way of making the most of the regulatory processes.

The Process Model of Emotion Regulation

The process model of emotion regulation is based on the modal model of emotion. This suggests that the emotion generation process occurs in a particular sequence over time. The sequence is as follows:

• Situation: the sequence begins with a situation (real or imagined) that is emotionally relevant.
• Attention: attention is directed towards the emotional situation.
• Appraisal: the emotional situation is evaluated and interpreted.
• Response: an emotional response is generated, giving rise to loosely coordinated changes in experiential, behavioural, and physiological response systems.

The process model contends that each of these four points in the emotion generation process can be subjected to regulation. From this conceptualisation, the process model posits five different families of emotion regulation that correspond to the regulation of a particular point in the emotion generation process. They occur in the following order:

• Situation selection
• Situation modification
• Attentional deployment
• Cognitive change
• Response modulation

The process model also divides these emotion regulation strategies into two categories: antecedent-focused and response-focused. Antecedent-focused strategies occur before an emotional response is fully generated. Response-focused strategies occur after an emotional response is fully generated.

The Brain and the Process Model of Emotion Regulation

The process model of emotion regulation has been linked to particular patterns of prefrontal activation. These regions include the orbital prefrontal cortex, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Two additional brain structures that have been found to contribute are the amygdala and the anterior cingulate cortex.

Each of these structures is involved in various facets of emotion regulation, and irregularities in one or more regions and/or interconnections among them are affiliated with failures of emotion regulation.

Emotion Regulation and Age

The development of functional magnetic resonance imaging has allowed for the study of emotion regulation on a biological level. Research over the last decade strongly suggests that there is a neural basis.

Neuropsychological studies show that as people age, their affect – the way they react to emotions – changes, either positively or negatively. Studies also show that positive affect increases as a person grows from adolescence to their mid-70s, while negative affect decreases until the mid-70s.

Emotion Regulation and Mental Disorders

Emotion regulation has been associated with physiological responses to stress during laboratory stress paradigms. It has also been linked to a range of mental disorders, including depression, anxiety, eating pathology, and substance abuse.

Emotion regulation strategies are taught, and emotion regulation problems are treated, in a variety of counselling and psychotherapy approaches, including cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT), emotion-focused therapy (EFT), and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT).

Cognitive reappraisal

How to Do Cognitive Reappraisal

• Perspective-taking: Looking at difficulties or other situations from various points of view, including another person's.
• Challenging interpretations: Recognising thought distortions, such as catastrophising and all-or-nothing thinking, and challenging them with simple questions like "what is the evidence for this belief?".
• Reframing: Looking at an experience from another angle.

Benefits of Cognitive Reappraisal

• Modifying emotional responses to provide relief.
• Lowering negative emotions and increasing positive emotions.
• Dampening excessive activation of brain centres such as the amygdala.
• Improving problem-solving by restoring access to rational thinking.
• Reducing negative emotions without avoiding or suppressing them.
• Enhancing resilience by giving people a skill to shape their responses to experiences.
• Improving physical health by managing the impact of stress on the body.
• Improving relationships by helping to manage conflicts and avoid misunderstandings.

Examples of Cognitive Reappraisal

• Getting lost on the way to a party and being late: Instead of getting frustrated, consider another perspective, such as "I dodged a bullet there!" or "I might as well enjoy the scenery while I'm driving around."
• The death of a loved one: Instead of fully unleashing your grief, you could acknowledge the loss but focus on the wonderful life the person lived and the good they did in the world.
• A mistake made by a child: Instead of getting scared and lying to their parents about it, the child could be taught to listen to and respond to their 'fear' emotion in a way that wouldn't lead to negative consequences.

When Not to Use Cognitive Reappraisal

While cognitive reappraisal can be a powerful tool, it is important to note that there may be times when it is not the best strategy. For example, in cases of trauma or intense emotional experiences, simply reframing the situation may not be sufficient, and other therapeutic approaches may be more effective. Additionally, in some contexts, reappraisal may be maladaptive and lead to diminished control of emotions. Thus, it is essential to consider the context and individual needs when deciding whether to use cognitive reappraisal or other emotion regulation strategies.

Emotional reactivity

• Active listening: Try to listen without bias and understand the other person's perspective. Notice your thoughts and feelings without judgment.
• Avoid assumptions: Ask questions to clarify what others mean instead of assuming malicious intent.
• Take a breath: Deep breathing promotes slow, even oxygen flow, helping the body produce 'happy chemicals'.
• Identify your emotions: Develop a vocabulary of emotion words to help you and others fully understand your experience.
• Identify your triggers: Become aware of what happens in your mind and body when you encounter triggers, and take time to find the deeper issue.
• Communicate effectively: Avoid blaming and shaming statements and use the communication model to express how you feel.
• Take a break: Give yourself time to calm down and think during heated conversations.
• Replenish your energy: Sleep, healthy meals, and hydration are important for keeping your body under control.
• Mindfulness and grounding: Utilize these techniques throughout your day to stay grounded and in control.
• Speak to a therapist: A therapist can give you effective strategies to gain control over your reactivity.

Age and emotion regulation

Emotion regulation is a complex process that involves initiating, inhibiting, or modulating one's state or behaviour in a given situation. It is a highly significant function in human life, as people are continually exposed to a wide variety of potentially arousing stimuli. Emotion regulation can be defined as the extrinsic and intrinsic processes of monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions in order to accomplish goals.

The ability to regulate emotions changes with age. Older adults tend to report surprisingly positive affective experiences, which is surprising given the well-documented cognitive and physical declines and social losses that come with age. This has been referred to as "the paradox of aging".

The idea that older adults are better at regulating their emotions has emerged as an intuitively appealing explanation for their positive affective experiences. However, the evidence for this is mixed, and it is not yet clear whether older adults are better at regulating their emotions than younger adults.

Theories on Age and Emotion Regulation

Socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) proposes that older adults' more limited time perspective leads them to prioritise present-oriented pro-hedonic emotional goals, which in turn leads to more positive affective experiences.

The strength and vulnerability integration (SAVI) model suggests that older adults may be better at regulating their emotions due to their ability to avoid negative content. However, this advantage may be offset when negative experiences become prolonged or cannot be avoided.

The selection, optimisation, and compensation in emotion regulation (SOC-ER) model suggests that emotion regulation changes with age, reflecting underlying resources that may also vary with age. Older adults may embrace less effortful regulation strategies while using high-effort strategies less often.

Evidence on Age Differences in Emotion Regulation

There is some evidence that older adults shift their use of emotion regulation strategies away from less effective strategies and towards more effective ones. For example, older adults may be more likely to use reappraisal and less likely to use suppression compared to younger adults.

However, the evidence for age differences in the use and effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies is mixed, and it is not clear that older adults are consistently better at regulating their emotions. Some studies suggest that older adults are less effective at using certain strategies, such as reappraisal.

Mechanisms Underlying Age Differences in Affective Experience

It is possible that older adults are better at matching their emotion regulation strategies to specific situations. However, the evidence for this is limited, and it may be that current approaches are not able to adequately capture individual differences in emotion regulation over time.

Other possible mechanisms underlying age differences in affective experience include reduced reactivity and physiological changes, implicit emotion regulation, acceptance and mindfulness, and personality changes.

While the idea that older adults are better at regulating their emotions is intuitively appealing, the evidence for this is mixed, and it is not yet clear whether age differences in emotion regulation exist. More research is needed to understand the complex interplay between age and emotion regulation.

Emotion regulation and psychopathology

Emotion regulation is a complex process that involves initiating, inhibiting, or modulating one's state or behaviour in a given situation. It can be defined as the extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions.

Emotion regulation is a critical component of psychopathology. Emotional problems are not always the result of emotion dysregulation, but when they are, it is necessary to specify the type of emotion dysregulation. For example, individuals with psychopathology may have a basic deficit in effectively employing potentially helpful strategies, such as acceptance or reappraisal.

Emotion regulation can be categorised into two types: antecedent-focused and response-focused. Antecedent-focused strategies occur before an emotional response is fully generated, while response-focused strategies occur after an emotional response is fully generated.

The process model of emotion regulation, based on the modal model of emotion, suggests that the emotion-generation process occurs in a particular sequence over time. This sequence includes the following:

• Situation: the sequence begins with a situation (real or imagined) that is emotionally relevant.
• Attention: attention is directed towards the emotional situation.
• Appraisal: the emotional situation is evaluated and interpreted.
• Response: an emotional response is generated, giving rise to loosely coordinated changes in experiential, behavioural, and physiological response systems.

The process model of emotion regulation identifies five different families of emotion regulation that correspond to a particular point in the emotion-generation process:

• Situation selection: choosing to avoid or approach a future emotional situation.
• Situation modification: altering one's external, physical environment to change its emotional impact.
• Attentional deployment: directing one's attention towards or away from an emotional situation.
• Cognitive change: changing how one appraises a situation to alter its emotional meaning.
• Response modulation: attempts to directly influence experiential, behavioural, and physiological response systems.

Emotion regulation strategies can be further categorised into two types: adaptive and maladaptive. Adaptive strategies are those that are flexible and contextually appropriate, while maladaptive strategies are those that are rigid and contextually inappropriate.

Research has shown that emotion dysregulation is associated with psychopathology, including symptoms of depression, anxiety, eating pathology, and substance abuse. Furthermore, difficulties in emotion regulation have been linked to various forms of psychopathology, including:

• Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD): characterised by an enduring instability in regulating emotions, relationships, self-image, and behaviour.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): associated with an inability to regulate emotions, particularly in response to traumatic events.
• Social Anxiety Disorder and Avoidant Personality Disorder: characterised by avoidance of social situations to regulate emotions.
• Depression: associated with an increased use of rumination and suppression, which are maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.
• Anxiety: associated with a decreased use of reappraisal, an adaptive emotion regulation strategy.
• Bipolar Disorder: linked to difficulties in maintaining and savouring positive affect.
• Aggression: related to a failure in emotion regulation, particularly in response to anger.

Frequently asked questions