Native American Spirituality: Traditions And Practices Today

Native American religions are diverse, with each tribe incorporating different values, traditions and teachings into their own unique religious beliefs. Despite the First Amendment, the United States' federal policy towards Native Americans and their religions has been inconsistent. Native American religions were prevalent in the pre-Columbian era, including state religions. However, beginning in the 1600s, European Christians sought to convert Native American tribes from their pre-existing beliefs to Christianity. After the United States gained independence, its government continued to suppress Indigenous practices and promote forcible conversion.

In the 21st century, some non-Native anthropologists estimate membership in traditional Native American religions to be about 9000 people. However, this number is likely a significant undercount as Native Americans practicing traditional ceremonies do not usually have public organizations or membership rolls. Native American spiritual leaders also note that these academic estimates substantially underestimate the numbers of participants because a century of US federal government persecution and prosecutions of traditional ceremonies caused believers to practice their religions in secrecy.

Native American religions are still prominent in the United States today, having been passed down through generations. The Native American Church (NAC), or the practice of Peyotism, is one of the most influential religious practices among tribes in the United States today. Officially chartered in the early 20th century, it integrates Christian principles with ancient tribal traditions and rituals.

Native Americans and the First Amendment

Historical Context

Native Americans have had a tumultuous relationship with European settlers and the US government, which has often sought to suppress their religious practices and forcibly convert them to Christianity. This suppression continued even after the US gained independence in the late 1700s and included violent eradication of certain Native American ceremonies and the removal of Native American children from their families, who were then forced to attend government-funded and church-operated American Indian boarding schools.

First Amendment Rights

Despite the US Constitution's First Amendment rights to freedom of speech, press, and religion, these rights have not always been extended to Native Americans. In 1800, Congress adopted "An Act for the preservation of peace with the Native American tribes", which limited these First Amendment rights as a way to suppress Native American criticism of US policies and prevent Europeans from inciting them to action.

Citizenship

The Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution, adopted in 1868, declared all persons "born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof" as citizens. However, the "jurisdiction" requirement was interpreted to exclude most Native Americans, and it wasn't until the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 that Congress extended citizenship to all Native Americans.

The Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968

It wasn't until the Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 that all the provisions of the First Amendment (except the establishment clause) and most other provisions of the Bill of Rights were extended to Native Americans.

The American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978

In 1978, the American Indian Religious Freedom Act was passed, providing protection for tribal culture and traditional religious rights, such as access to sacred sites and the freedom to worship through traditional ceremonies.

Sacred Sites and Objects

In addition to the above legislation, there have been other laws put in place to protect Native American sacred sites and objects, such as the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990, which requires federal agencies and institutions that receive federal funding to return Native American cultural items and human remains to their respective peoples.

Religious Practices

Native American religious practices are highly localized and vary widely depending on the individual nations, tribes, and bands. Theology can be monotheistic, polytheistic, henotheistic, animistic, shamanistic, pantheistic, or any combination of these. Traditional beliefs are usually passed down orally in the form of myths, oral histories, stories, allegories, and principles.

Religious Persecution

Native American religious practices have often led to conflict, particularly due to the ceremonial ingestion of peyote, a mildly hallucinogenic product of cacti. In 1990, the Supreme Court ruled that states were not required to exempt Native Americans who ingested peyote from general criminal laws. However, in 1994, Congress amended the American Indian Religious Freedom Act to allow Native Americans to ingest peyote for religious purposes.

While there have been improvements in the extension of First Amendment rights to Native Americans, there is still a complex history of religious suppression and persecution to overcome.

Native American religious persecution

Native American religions are the indigenous spiritual practices of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Ceremonial ways vary widely and are based on the differing histories and beliefs of individual nations, tribes and bands.

From the 1600s, European Christians, both Catholics and various Protestant denominations, sought to convert Native American tribes from their pre-existing beliefs to Christianity. After the United States gained independence in the late 1700s, its government continued to suppress Indigenous practices and promote forcible conversion.

In the 1800s, the US government adopted the Code of Indian Offences, which made participating in Native religious ceremonies a crime. The Code created local courts that handed out sentences such as withholding food and rations for more than two weeks from any Native person caught practising their religion at a dance or ceremony. It also created a 10-day prison sentence for any Native person caught seeking spiritual advice or medicine from a tribal priest or Native doctor.

In the late 1800s, the Ghost Dance movement was founded as a religious revitalization movement to save the lives of Native Americans and enable them to survive current and coming catastrophes. However, the government responded with violence, and a Ghost Dance gathering at Wounded Knee in December 1890 was invaded by the Seventh Cavalry, who massacred unarmed Lakota and Dakota people, primarily women, children and the elderly.

By the turn of the 20th century, the American government began to turn to less violent means of suppressing Native American religious beliefs. A series of federal laws was passed banning traditional Indigenous practices such as feasts, Sun Dance ceremonies and the use of the sweat lodge, among others. This government persecution and prosecution officially continued until 1978 with the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA).

Another significant system of religious suppression was the removal of Native American children from their families and into a system of government-funded and church-operated American Indian boarding schools (also known as residential schools). In these schools, Native children were forced to learn European Christian beliefs, the values of mainstream white culture, and the English language, while being forbidden to speak their own languages and practise their own cultural beliefs. This system of forcible conversion and suppression of Indigenous languages and cultures continued through the 1970s.

Native American religious practices today

Native American religions are diverse, with different tribes holding different beliefs and practices. However, there are some commonalities, such as a belief in a creator, the importance of place and nature, and the existence of sacred spaces.

Native American religious practices have been shaped by a history of persecution and suppression. From the 16th to the 21st centuries, numerous new movements emerged, which can be broadly categorised as fundamentalist or reform. Fundamentalist movements favoured a return to traditional ways, while reform movements combined indigenous and Christian beliefs and practices.

Today, Native American religious practices continue to be diverse. Some people follow traditional religions, while others participate in syncretic traditions that blend indigenous and Christian elements. There is also a range of pan-Native ceremonies and traditions, such as powwow meetings and the Sun Dance.

The Native American Church (NAC), also known as Peyotism, is one of the most influential religious practices among Native Americans today. It combines Christian principles with ancient tribal traditions and rituals. The use of peyote, a hallucinogenic drug, in NAC ceremonies has been a subject of legal debate, but it is now permitted for members of the church.

While some Native Americans have embraced Christianity, others maintain their traditional beliefs and practices. Traditional ceremonies are often not public, and participation is more important than belief. Generosity is a key value, expressed through practices such as the giveaway or potlatch.

Overall, Native American religious practices today reflect a diverse range of beliefs and traditions, shaped by historical influences and ongoing adaptation to the present and future.

Native American Church

The Native American Church (NAC), also known as Peyotism and the Peyote Religion, is a syncretic religion that combines traditional Native American beliefs with elements of Christianity. The religion originated in the Oklahoma Territory in the late 19th century and is now the most widespread indigenous religion among Native Americans in the US (except Alaska Natives and Native Hawaiians), Canada, and Mexico, with an estimated 300,000 adherents.

The Native American Church teaches a combination of traditional Native American beliefs and elements of Christianity, especially the Ten Commandments. The religion is monotheistic, believing in a supreme being called the Great Spirit, or God. The church's tenets regard peyote as a sacred and holy sacrament and use it as a means to communicate with the Great Spirit.

The Native American Church has two main umbrella chapters: the Native American Church of the United States and the Native American Church of North America. The former has no blood quantum requirements to attend ceremonies and is generally open to all races. The latter only allows Native Americans with a blood quantum of 1/4 or more to attend.

The church has multiple sects or traditions, or "ways". The two main ones are the Half-Moon way and the Cross-fire way. The Half-Moon way was introduced in 1914 or 1924 by James Seymour of the Winnebago tribe. The Cross-fire way uses a Bible on an altar, practices baptism, and has a minister present, while the Half-Moon way does not.

Ceremonies are generally held in a tipi and are conducted by a priest, pastor, or elder, known as the Roadman. They commonly last all night, beginning on Saturday evening and ending early Sunday morning. Scripture reading, prayer, singing, and drumming are included. The four sacramental foods are water, shredded beef or "sweet meat", corn mush, and a variety of berries. The ceremony ends with a community feast.

The Native American Church faced possible legal issues regarding their use of peyote but was granted legal protection with the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978. While peyote use has been declared legal without regard to race or tribal status in all US states other than Idaho and Texas, the purchase of peyote from licensed distributors can only be made via permit by enrolled tribal members, who must intend to use it for religious purposes only.

Native American reservations

Reservations were established in the 19th century as a way to relocate Native American tribes from their ancestral lands to designated areas. This was done through a series of treaties and agreements, many of which were not honoured by the government. The main goals of Indian reservations were to bring Native Americans under U.S. government control, minimize conflict between Indians and settlers, and encourage Native Americans to take on the ways of the white man.

Today, there are over 300 reservations across the United States, and many Native Americans continue to live on them. Reservations are often located in rural areas and have limited access to resources and services. Poverty and unemployment are major issues, and many reservations also face environmental challenges such as water pollution and land degradation.

Despite these challenges, many Native Americans are working to build strong and sustainable communities on their reservations. They have implemented sustainable resource management practices, such as renewable energy projects and conservation efforts, and have developed initiatives to promote economic growth and sustainability.

The decision to live on or leave a reservation is a personal one, and there are various reasons why an individual might choose to do so. Some people want to stay connected to their cultural heritage and community, while others seek better opportunities in terms of education, employment, and living conditions. Additionally, some reservations may not allow non-Native spouses to live on the land, which can influence an individual's decision to leave.

In conclusion, Native American reservations continue to exist as a result of historical injustices, forced relocation, and ongoing systemic discrimination. They serve as a reminder of the atrocities inflicted upon Native Americans by colonizers and the U.S. government. While life on reservations can be challenging, they provide a sense of community and allow Native Americans to maintain their cultural heritage and connection to their ancestral lands.

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