Turks' Religious Identity: Sunni Or Shia?

Turkey is a predominantly Islamic country, with up to 99% of Turks identifying as Muslim. While the country is officially secular, the majority of its Muslim population are Sunni, with some sources estimating that Sunnis make up 90% of the country's Muslims. The Hanafi school of Sunni Islam is the most popular school of thought, with around 90% of overall Muslim denominations following this school. Smaller Ja’afari Shi’a Muslim communities are also present in Turkey, with some sources estimating that they make up 1% of the country's Muslim population.

The majority of Turks are Sunni Muslims

Turkish Sunni Muslims primarily follow the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, which is known for its liberal interpretation of religious law. The Hanafi school was also the official doctrine of the Ottoman Empire, which ruled the region for centuries. In addition to the Hanafi school, a smaller number of Turkish Sunni Muslims follow the Shafi'i school of jurisprudence, particularly in Turkish Kurdistan.

The presence of Sunni Islam in Turkey has been influenced by various historical factors, including the spread of Islam by Arab armies during the 7th and 8th centuries and the later expansion of the Seljuk Turks. The Ottoman Empire, which was predominantly Sunni, also played a significant role in shaping the religious landscape of the region.

While Turkey is predominantly Sunni, there are also Shia Muslim communities, including Alevis, Ja'faris, and Alawites. These groups make up a smaller proportion of the overall Muslim population in the country. Sufism has also had a long presence and influence on Turkish Islam.

Turkey's secular tradition and legal structure have helped maintain a balance between different religious groups within the country. The separation of mosque and state was established soon after the founding of the modern Turkish state in 1923, and secular reforms were implemented by President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk during the 1920s and 1930s. Despite this official secularism, religion continues to play an important role in the lives of many Turks, with a significant portion of the population attending religious services and identifying as devout or mainstream Muslims.

Turkey is a secular state

The history of secularism in Turkey dates back to the last years of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire was a Sunni Islamic state, with Sharia law as its fundamental legal system. However, in the 19th century, the empire began to modernise and adopt European-style reforms, which included granting equal citizenship and more rights and opportunities for women.

In the early 20th century, the new nationalist regime abolished the Ottoman sultanate and the caliphate, the religious office that Ottoman sultans had held for four centuries. Thus, for the first time in Islamic history, no ruler claimed spiritual leadership of Islam. Atatürk's reforms also included the abandonment of the Islamic calendar in favour of the Gregorian calendar, and the replacement of the Arabic alphabet with the Latin alphabet.

Despite its official secularism, the Turkish government includes the state agency of the Presidency of Religious Affairs, which controls all mosques and pays the salaries of all Muslim clerics. The institution operates 77,500 mosques, builds new ones, and approves all sermons given in mosques in Turkey. The Presidency of Religious Affairs finances only Sunni Muslim worship in Turkey.

While Turkey is officially a secular state, all primary and secondary schools have been required to teach religious studies since 1982, with the curriculum focusing mainly on Sunni Islam. This has been a divisive issue, with influential religious factions challenging the complete secularisation called for by Kemalism and the observance of Islamic practices experiencing a substantial revival.

Twelver Shi'a Muslims make up the largest group within global Shi'ism

Twelver Shi'ism, also known as Imāmīyya, is the largest branch of Shīʿa Islam, comprising about 85% of all Shīas. The term Twelver refers to its adherents' belief in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as the Twelve Imams, and their belief that the last Imam, Imam al-Mahdi, lives in Occultation and will reappear as the promised Mahdi.

Twelvers believe that the Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political successors to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to the theology of Twelvers, the Twelve Imams are exemplary human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community with justice but are also able to preserve and interpret Islamic law and the esoteric meaning of the Qur'an. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide and model for the Muslim community to follow. As a result, Muhammad and the Imams must be free from error and sin, a doctrine known as Ismah, and must be chosen by divine decree, or nass, through Muhammad.

Twelver Shi'ism is the state religion of Iran, where most of its adherents live. There are about 160 million Twelvers globally, most of whom live in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain and Azerbaijan. Twelvers also make up half the Muslims in Lebanon, and there are sizeable minorities in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Bangladesh, Kuwait, Oman, the UAE and Qatar.

Twelver doctrine is based on five principles: monotheism, justice, prophethood, leadership and resurrection and Last Judgment. The Twelver jurisprudence is called Jaʽfari jurisprudence, and there are three schools of Jaʽfari jurisprudence: Usuli, Akhbari, and Shaykhi. The Usuli school is by far the largest of the three.

The Twelver Shi'ism branch of Islam is distinct from Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abu Bakr, who was appointed caliph by a group of Muhammad's companions, to be the first Rashidun caliph after Muhammad.

The Safavid Empire's influence on Turkey

The Safavid Empire was a powerful Iranian dynasty that ruled from 1501 to 1736. The empire was founded by Ismail I, a descendant of Sheikh Safi al-Din, the leader of the Safavid Sufi order. Ismail conquered Tabriz in 1501 and declared himself the Shah of Iran, establishing Twelver Shi'a Islam as the official religion of his empire.

The rise of the Safavid Empire had significant ripple effects in the Ottoman Empire, which was the dominant power in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). The success of Ismail I inspired Sufis and heterodox Muslims in Asia Minor, who believed him to be a divine figure. Some of these groups rose up in support of Ismail, leading to brutal crackdowns by the Ottomans, who began to suppress heterodox forms of Islam. Despite these efforts, groups such as the Alevis in Turkey persisted and remain a significant minority in the country today.

The influence of the Safavid Empire extended beyond religious matters. The Safavid dynasty ruled over a vast territory that included parts of modern-day Turkey, and they had a significant cultural and architectural impact on the regions they controlled. The Safavid Empire was known for its architectural achievements, particularly in Isfahan, which became the capital under Shah Abbas I. The construction of impressive mosques, squares, and palaces during the Safavid period left a lasting mark on the regions that were once part of their empire, including parts of modern-day Turkey.

In conclusion, while the direct influence of the Safavid Empire on Turkey waned after the decline of their power in the region, their establishment of Twelver Shi'a Islam as the state religion and their cultural and architectural legacy continue to shape aspects of Turkish society and culture today.

Turkey's deteriorating relations with its neighbours due to sectarian fault lines

Turkey is a secular state with a Muslim-majority population. Most Turkish Sunni Muslims belong to the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. The Hanafi school of Sunni Islam is the most popular school of thought, with about 90% of overall Muslim denominations following it. The remaining Muslim sects, forming about 9% of the Muslim population, consist of Alevis, Ja'faris, and Alawites.

Turkey's relations with its neighbours Syria, Iraq, and Iran have deteriorated due to sectarian fault lines. Turkey's support of the opposition against the Alawite regime in Syria and the hosting of the Sunni vice president of Iraq, Tariq al-Hashemi, have contributed to the strain. Additionally, Turkish support for the opposition in Syria and the Nouri al-Maliki government in Iraq is believed to have Iranian backing. Turkey's relations with these countries were previously stable, with Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan developing close personal relations with their leaders despite their different sectarian identities.

Turkey's position in the Middle East is complex and problematic. The country has been deeply engaged in the region, which is beset by inter-state rivalries and internal civil turmoil. Turkey's relations with its European neighbours have been more stable since the end of the civil war in former Yugoslavia, although the ongoing Cyprus dispute remains an issue. To the north and east, the revival of Russian power has left Turkey as little more than an onlooker.

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